2016 ties with 2007 for second lowest Arctic sea ice minimum

Arctic sea ice appears to have reached its seasonal minimum extent for 2016 on September 10. A relatively rapid loss of sea ice in the first ten days of September has pushed the ice extent to a statistical tie with 2007 for the second lowest in the satellite record. September’s low extent followed a summer characterized by conditions generally unfavorable for sea ice loss.

Please note that this is a preliminary announcement. Changing winds or late-season melt could still reduce the Arctic ice extent, as happened in 2005 and 2010. NSIDC scientists will release a full analysis of the Arctic melt season, and discuss the Antarctic winter sea ice growth, in early October.

Overview of conditions

Figure 1. Arctic sea ice extent for September 10, 2016 was 4.14 million square kilometers (1.60 million square miles). The orange line shows the 1981 to 2010 median extent for that day.

Figure 1. Arctic sea ice extent for September 10, 2016 was 4.14 million square kilometers (1.60 million square miles). The orange line shows the 1981 to 2010 median extent for that day. The black cross indicates the geographic North Pole. Sea Ice Index data. About the data

Credit: National Snow and Ice Data Center
High-resolution image

On September 10, Arctic sea ice extent stood at 4.14 million square kilometers (1.60 million square miles). This appears to have been the lowest extent of the year and is tied with 2007 as the second lowest extent on record. This year’s minimum extent is 750,000 square kilometers (290,000 square miles) above the record low set in 2012 and is well below the two standard deviation range for the 37-year satellite record. Satellite data show extensive areas of open water in the Beaufort and Chukchi seas, and in the Laptev and East Siberian seas.

During the first ten days of September, the Arctic lost ice at a faster than average rate. Ice extent lost 34,100 square kilometers (13,200 square miles) per day compared to the 1981 to 2010 long-term average of 21,000 square kilometers (8,100 square miles) per day. The early September rate of decline also greatly exceeded the rate observed for the same period in 2012 (19,000 square kilometers, or 7,340 square miles, per day). Recent ice loss has been most pronounced in the Chukchi Sea. This may relate to the impact of two strong cyclones that passed through the region during August.

Satellite passive microwave data and images from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) suggest that the southern Northwest Passage routes are still open. While the passive microwave data show that the Northern Sea route is open, MODIS data reveal a narrow band of scattered sea ice blocking the passage near the Taymyr Peninsula.

Conditions in context

Figure 2a. The graph shows Arctic sea ice extent as of September 12, 2016, along with daily ice extent data for four other record low years. 2016 is shown in blue, 2015 in green, 2012 in orange, 2011 in brown, and 2007 in purple. The 1981 to 2010 average is in dark gray. The gray area around the average line shows the two standard deviation range of the data. Sea Ice Index data.||Credit: National Snow and Ice Data Center|High-resolution image

Figure 2a. The graph shows Arctic sea ice extent as of September 12, 2016, along with daily ice extent data for four other record low years. 2016 is shown in blue, 2015 in green, 2012 in orange, 2011 in brown, and 2007 in purple. The 1981 to 2010 average is in dark gray. The gray area around the average line shows the two standard deviation range of the data. Sea Ice Index data.

Credit: National Snow and Ice Data Center
High-resolution image

Figure 2b. This plot shows Arctic air temperature anomalies at the 925 hPa level in degrees Celsius and sea level pressure anomalies for two periods: July 1 to August 31, and September 1 through September 11. Yellows and reds indicate higher than average temperatures and pressure; blues and purples indicate lower than average temperatures and pressure.

Figure 2b. This plot shows Arctic air temperature anomalies at the 925 hPa level in degrees Celsius and sea level pressure anomalies for two periods: July 1 to August 31, and September 1 through September 11. Yellows and reds indicate higher than average temperatures and pressure; blues and purples indicate lower than average temperatures and pressure.

Credit: NSIDC courtesy NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory Physical Sciences Division
High-resolution image

Weather in early September was warm along the Siberian coast (up to 9 degrees Celsius or 16 degrees Fahrenheit above average), with high pressure over the same region and strong winds across the central Arctic. However, as discussed in previous posts, weather over the Arctic Ocean this past summer has been generally stormy, cool, and cloudy—conditions that previous studies have shown to generally limit the rate of summer ice loss. That September ice extent nevertheless fell to second lowest in the satellite record is hence surprising. Averaged for July through August, air temperatures at the 925 hPa level (about 2,500 feet above sea level) were 0.5 to 2 degrees Celsius (1 to 4 degrees Fahrenheit) below the 1981 to 2010 long-term average over much of the central Arctic Ocean, and near average to slightly higher than average near the North American and easternmost Siberian coasts. Reflecting the stormy conditions, sea level pressures were much lower than average in the central Arctic during these months.

Why did extent fall to a tie for second lowest with 2007? The 2016 Arctic melt season started with a record low maximum extent in March, and sea ice was measured at record low monthly extents well into June. Computer models of ice thickness, and maps of sea ice age both indicated a much thinner ice pack at the end of winter. Statistically, there is little relationship between May and September sea ice extents after removing the long-term trend, indicating the strong role of summer weather patterns in controlling sea ice loss. However, the initial ice thickness may play a significant role. As noted in our mid-August post, the upper ocean was quite warm this summer and ocean-driven melting is important during late summer. The science community will be examining these issues in more detail in coming months.

Ice loss primarily in the northern Chukchi Sea

Figure 4. This figure compares Arctic sea ice extent for September 1 (orange) and September 10 (blue), with overlap areas in purple.

Figure 4. This figure compares Arctic sea ice extent for September 1 (orange) and September 10 (blue), with overlap areas in purple.

Credit: National Snow and Ice Data Center
High-resolution image

The late season ice loss appears to have been greatest in an extended area of patchy ice reaching from the eastern Beaufort Sea to the northern Chukchi Sea. This is in the area influenced by the two strong cyclones discussed in our August posts—the strong winds appear to have compacted the ice cover and may have led to an upward mixing of warm ocean water.

 

Second opinion

Figure 5. This graph compares Arctic sea ice extent trends from August 15 to September 10 for the years 2007 (F-17), 2012 (F-17), and 2016 (F-17 and F-18). The NSIDC Sea Ice Index currently uses data from the F-18 satellite.

Figure 5. This graph compares Arctic sea ice extent trends from August 15 to September 10 for the years 2007 (F-17), 2012 (F-17), and 2016 (F-17 and F-18). The NSIDC Sea Ice Index currently uses data from the F-18 satellite.

Credit: W. Meier, NASA GSFC, NSIDC
High-resolution image

The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) F-17 satellite, which NSIDC ceased to use in May as its primary source for sea ice extent due to erratic data, has since re-stabilized and is providing more consistent day-to-day readings. While NSIDC will continue to use the DMSP F-18 satellite for data processing, it is instructive to examine the F-17 record. Early September extent from the F-17 record is slightly higher than from F-18. Both sensors indicate that the minimum extent for 2016 is slightly lower than the 2007 minimum, which was 4.15 million square kilometers (1.60 million square miles) and reached on September 18. However, the measurement accuracy is about ±25,000 square kilometers (±9,600 square miles) for a five-day trailing average daily extent measurement. This means that at the present levels, 2016 is a statistical tie for second lowest sea ice extent.

Previous minimum Arctic sea ice extents

Table 1.   Previous minimum Arctic sea ice extents
 YEAR MINIMUM ICE EXTENT DATE
IN MILLIONS OF SQUARE KILOMETERS IN MILLIONS OF SQUARE MILES
2007 4.15 1.60 Sept. 18
2008 4.59 1.77 Sept. 20
2009 5.12 1.98 Sept. 13
2010 4.62 1.78 Sept. 21
2011 4.34 1.67 Sept. 11
2012 3.39 1.31 Sept. 17
2013 5.06 1.95 Sept. 13
2014 5.03 1.94 Sept. 17
2015 4.43 1.71 Sept. 9
2016 4.14 1.60 Sept. 10
1979 to 2000 average 6.70 2.59 Sept. 13
1981 to 2010 average 6.22 2.40 Sept. 15

Ten lowest minimum Arctic sea ice extents (satellite record, 1979 to present)

Table 2.  Ten lowest minimum Arctic sea ice extents (satellite record, 1979 to present)
 RANK  YEAR MINIMUM ICE EXTENT DATE
IN MILLIONS OF SQUARE KILOMETERS IN MILLIONS OF SQUARE MILES
1 2012 3.39 1.31 Sept. 17
2

 

2016

2007

4.14

4.15

1.60

1.60

Sept. 10

Sept. 18

3 2011 4.34 1.67 Sept. 11
4 2015 4.43 1.71 Sept. 9
5 2008 4.59 1.77 Sept. 20
6 2010 4.62 1.78 Sept. 21
7 2014 5.03 1.94 Sept. 17
8 2013 5.06 1.95 Sept. 13
9 2009 5.12 1.98 Sept. 13
10 2005 5.32 2.05 Sept. 22

Note that the dates and extents of the minima have been re-calculated from what we posted in previous years. In June 2016, NSIDC transitioned to using data from the DMSP F-18 satellite, due to issues with the F-17 satellite. Data beginning April 1, 2016 are from F-18. In July 2016, Sea Ice Index data were updated to Version 2. These changes do not significantly affect sea ice trends and year-to-year comparisons, but in some instances users may notice small changes in values from the previous version of the data. Details on the changes are discussed in the Sea Ice Index documentation.

October 19, 2016: We revised the title for Table 2 from “Ten lowest minimum Arctic sea ice extents (1981 to 2010 average)” to “Ten lowest minimum Arctic sea ice extents (satellite record, 1979 to present)”

 

 

 

 

 

 

Arctic sea ice nears its minimum extent for the year

Throughout August, Arctic sea ice extent continued to track two or more standard deviations below the long-term average. The month saw two very strong storms enter the central Arctic Ocean from along the Siberian coast. In the Antarctic, ice extent remained near average.

Overview of conditions

sea ice extent map

Figure 1. Arctic sea ice extent for August 2016 was 5.60 million square kilometers (2.16 million square miles). The magenta line shows the 1981 to 2010 median extent for that month. The black cross indicates the geographic North Pole. Sea Ice Index data. About the data

Credit: National Snow and Ice Data Center
High-resolution image

Average sea ice extent for August 2016 was 5.60 million square kilometers (2.16 million square miles), the fourth lowest August extent in the satellite record. This is 1.03 million square kilometers below the 1981 to 2010 average for the month and 890,000 square kilometers (344,000 square miles) above the record low for August set in 2012. As of September 5, sea ice extent remains below average everywhere except for a small area within the Laptev Sea. Ice extent is especially low in the Beaufort Sea and in the East Siberian Sea. With about two weeks of seasonal melt yet to go, it is unlikely that a new record low will be reached. However, since August 26, total sea ice extent is already lower than at the same time in 2007 and is currently tracking as the second lowest daily extent on record. In addition, during the first five days of September the ice cover has retreated an additional 288,000 square kilometers (111,000 square miles) as the tongue of sea ice in the Chukchi Sea has started to disintegrate.

Conditions in context

sea ice extent graph

Figure 2a. The graph above shows Arctic sea ice extent as of September 5, 2016, along with daily ice extent data for four previous years. 2016 is shown in blue, 2015 in green, 2014 in orange, 2013 in brown, and 2012 in purple. The 1981 to 2010 average is in dark gray. The gray area around the average line shows the two standard deviation range of the data. Sea Ice Index data.

Credit: National Snow and Ice Data Center
High-resolution image

ice concentration map

Figure 2b. The map shows Arctic sea ice concentration from the AMSR2 satellite instrument for September 5, 2016. Light blues and greens in ocean areas indicate areas of low ice concentration. The grey circle at the North Pole indicates where the satellite does not collect data, due to its orbit.

Credit: National Snow and Ice Data Center/University of Bremen
High-resolution image

The average ice loss rate through August was 75,000 square kilometers per day (29,000 square miles), compared to the long-term 1981 to 2010 average of 57,300 square kilometers per day (22,100 square miles per day), and a rate of 89,500 square kilometers per day for 2012 (34,500 square miles per day). Total ice extent loss in August was 2.34 million square kilometers (904,000 square miles).

Air temperatures at the 925 hPa level were 1 to 3 degrees Celsius (2 to 5 degrees Fahrenheit) below average for a large area stretching from the northern Kara Sea, through the Laptev Sea, and into north-central Eurasia. Temperatures elsewhere over the Arctic Ocean were near average. Reflecting the generally stormy pattern through the month, sea level pressures were well below average (as much as 10 hPa) over the central and eastern Arctic Ocean. Two very strong cyclones entered the central Arctic Ocean in August from along the Siberian coast, bringing strong winds. On August 16, the central pressure of the first cyclone dropped to 968 hPa, nearly rivaling the storm in early August 2012 that attained a minimum central pressure of 966 hPa. On 22 August, the second storm started moving to the central Arctic Ocean along a similar track, and on August 23, attained a central pressure of 970 hPa.

Past studies have shown that stormy summers tend to end up with more sea ice at the end of the melt season than summers with high pressure over the central Arctic Ocean, primarily because stormy summers are both fairly cool and the wind pattern tends to spread the ice out. However, the impact of strong individual storms may be different—the 2012 event appears to have temporarily boosted ice loss by breaking up the ice cover, with the wave action tending to mix warmer waters from below to hasten melt. It may also be that, as the ice cover thins, its response to storms is changing.

It indeed appears that the August 2016 storms helped to break up the ice and spread it out, contributing to the development of several large embayments and polynyas. Some of this ice divergence likely led to fragmented ice being transported into warmer ocean waters, hastening melt. Whether warmer waters from below were mixed upwards to hasten melt remains to be determined, but as discussed below, these storms were associated with very high wave heights.

August 2016 compared to previous years

sea ice trend graph

Figure 3. Monthly August ice extent for 1979 to 2016 shows a decline of 10.4 percent per decade.

Credit: National Snow and Ice Data Center
High-resolution image

Arctic sea ice extent averaged for August 2016 was the fourth lowest in the satellite data record. Through 2016, the linear rate of decline for August is 10.4 percent per decade.

Cyclones, ocean wave heights, and ice retreat

wave height maps

Figure 4. This series of plots shows significant wave height (in meters, indicated by color scale) in the western Arctic Ocean during the 2016 Arctic cyclone, from August 14 to August 16, 2016, as predicted by a numerical wave model (WAVEWATCH III), run at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). The solid red lines correspond to the analysis ice concentrations (25 percent, 50 percent and 75 percent) used as input for the wave model. White arrows indicate wave direction. This hindcast uses two time-varying inputs: 10-meter wind vectors from the atmospheric model NAVGEM (Navy Global Environmental Model, Hogan et al. 2014) run at the Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FNMOC), and analyses of ice concentrations (also produced at FNMOC) from passive microwave radiometer data (SSM/I). The wave model is run on a polar stereographic grid with a resolution of approximately 18 kilometers.

Credit: Erick Rogers, Naval Research Laboratory
High-resolution image

Large waves are common at high latitudes; 10-meter wave heights (33 feet) are not unusual for the Nordic Seas, and 15-meter wave heights (49 feet) can occur in the high latitudes of the Southern Ocean. However, large waves are a relatively new feature of the western Arctic Ocean. The height of waves is in part determined by surface wind speed, as well as the fetch (distance over open water that the wind can travel) and the duration of a wind event. A moderate sea ice cover damps ocean waves by absorbing and dispersing the wave energy through jostling of the ice floes against one another. A dense ice pack cover acts as a shield between the ocean and the surface wind, preventing wave formation.

In the latter half of the twentieth century, 4 to 6 meter waves (13 to 20 feet) rarely occurred in the western Arctic Ocean, but with more open water they have become more frequent, especially when strong storms enter the Arctic Ocean in late summer or early autumn. During the first of the two August cyclones discussed above, waves up to 5.9 meters (19 feet) were predicted. This occurred during the early part of the cyclone’s lifecycle (1800 UTC August 14), in the eastern Kara Sea. Further east, north of the New Siberian Islands, wave heights were estimated as high as 4.3 meters (14 feet) late on August 15. In this region, the waves were directly incident on the ice edge. In response, the ice edge retreated following the 4.3 meter waves on August 15.

Northwest Passage update

Figure 5. The time series shows total sea ice area for selected years and the 1981-2010 average within the northern route of the Northwest Passage. The cyan line shows 2016 and other colors show ice conditions in different years. Data are from the Canadian Ice Service.

Credit: Stephen Howell, Environment and Climate Change Canada
High-resolution image

The Northwest Passage refers to the fabled shortcut between the Atlantic and Pacific through the Canadian Archipelago. However, it is not one route. There is a northern, deep-water route through the Parry Channel, entered from the west through the M’Clure Strait and a shallower southern route, known as Amundsen’s route. Sea ice in the Parry Channel route has shown a sharp decline since the middle of July, but the channel is still not entirely ice free. Considerable ice remains in the western (M’Clure Strait) region and there are lesser amounts in the eastern regions. This is mostly (~80 percent) multiyear ice. Low ice years in the Parry Channel are typically the result of early summer breakup associated with high sea level pressure over the Beaufort Sea and Canada Basin that displace the Arctic Ocean pack ice away from the western entrance. Conversely, low sea level pressure anomalies over the Beaufort Sea and Canada Basin keep the Arctic Ocean pack ice up against the western entrance. This has been the case for much of the 2016 melt season. The southern (Amundsen’s) route is open but it is still uncertain whether the northern route will open in the coming weeks.

Even during mild ice years, thick multiyear ice is typically advected into these routes during the summer months. Multiyear ice is a significant obstacle for ships. Nevertheless, taking advantage of mild sea ice conditions, the 68,000-ton Crystal Serenity set sail from Anchorage, Alaska on August 16 for its 32-day journey through the Northwest Passage via Amundsen’s route. This is the largest ship thus far to navigate the Northwest Passage and is accompanied by an icebreaker ship and two helicopters. The ship sailed through the Northwest Passage in less than three weeks—52 times faster than Amundsen’s nearly three-year voyage.

On the other side of the Arctic, the Northern Sea Route appears mostly ice free.

Further reading

Collins, C. O., W. E. Rogers, A. Marchenko and A. V. Babanin. 2015. In situ measurements of an energetic wave event in the Arctic marginal ice zone. Geophysical Research Letters, 42, doi:10.1002/2015GL063063.

Haas, C., and S. E. L. Howell. 2015. Ice thickness in the Northwest Passage. Geophysical Research Letters, 42, 7673–7680, doi:10.1002/2015GL065704.

Hogan, T., et al. 2014. The Navy Global Environmental Model, Oceanography, 27(3), 116-125.

Howell, S. E. L., T. Wohlleben, M. Dabboor, C. Derksen, A. Komarov and L. Pizzolato. 2013. Recent changes in the exchange of sea ice between the Arctic Ocean and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Journal of Geophysical Research, 118, 3595–3607, doi:10.1002/jgrc.20265.

Thomson, J., and W. E. Rogers. 2014. Swell and sea in the emerging Arctic Ocean, Geophysical Research Letters 41, doi:10.1002/2014GL059983.

Thomson, J. et al. 2016. Emerging trends in the sea state of the Beaufort and Chukchi seas, Ocean Modelling 105, doi:10.1016/j.ocemod.2016.02.009.